Poikilohydry in mosses an ecological limitation or opportunity Essay Example

Poikilohydry in mosses: an ecological limitation or opportunity Essay The most significant evolutionary event in the history of the plant kingdom began with the migration of aquatic photosynthetic organisms on to land approximately 475 Myr ago 1,2. Terrestrial embryophytes (referred to as embryophytes) derived from algal ancestors constitute two divisions, the bryophytes (lacking vascular tissue) and the tracheophytes (possessing vascular conducting tissues) 2. The evolutionary transition from aquatic photoautotrophs heralded the innovation of morphological and physiological characteristics critical for success in the terrestrial habitat, and consequent diversification of land plants.It has been hypothesised that early bryophyte related groups pioneered the transition from water to life on land 1,2,4. The mosses appear to be among the most ancient divisions of the land plants. Fossils of spores and gametophytes dating from the Mid Ordivician (~476 Myr) and Mid Sliurian (~432 Myr) have been discovered that closely resemble some modern bryophytes 4. Furt hermore, the remains of fossilised spore-bearing organs and vascular tissues from the Lower Devonian (~410 Myr) reveal similarity in anatomical details to living mosses 4. This paleobotanical evidence combined with phylogenetic studies suggests that groups related to extant mosses are primitive ancestors of the major taxonomic groups of terrestrial plants.In the comparatively uniform environment of aquatic life there is much less scope for variation in abiotic factors and hence natural selection. Light availability vertically through the water column is the major limiting factor. Photosynthetic organisms surrounded by water have no requirement for specialised anatomical features for water absorption, as diffusion occurs across the whole cellular surface, nor do aquatics require adaptive measures to protect against water loss through evaporation. Furthermore, a submersed plant requires no mechanical tissues as the buoyant force of water provides the necessary support 1,5. In contrast , plants entering the terrestrial environment are exposed to a greater variation in the fundamental abiotic conditions including moisture, temperature (rainforest and tundra), light and gravitation.In particular, the land environment exhibits dehydrating affects from the atmosphere and water may be continually lost through evaporation. Water and nutrients may be continuous underground, however, dependence on light requires the aboveground presence of photosynthetic tissue where water is often irregular 1,5. Therefore, suitable water relations are a prerequisite to survival on land. Embryophytes are able to tolerate the desiccating affects of the land environment and exhibit numerous morphological and physiological departures from the ancestral aquatic state. Depending on their ability to compensate for fluctuations in water supply and rate of evaporation, embryophytes may be classified as poikilohydric or homoiohydric 5.Poikilohydry as a limitationMosses represent the oldest living remnants of initial land colonisation. It can be viewed the mosses represent a primitive condition of plant development 4. Mosses can be said to represent an evolutionary intermediate between algal ancestors and the vascular plants, manifested in features that may be more in common with aquatic algae or lichens and are said not to be fully terrestrialised or having a greater reliance on water 4,5,7,8. However, moss gametophytes do exhibit innovations such as tissue differentiation (leaves, rhizoids) and primitive vascularisation 3.It is in the gametophyte form of mosses where the potential for land development in some ecological scenarios may be limited. The gametophyte does not posses a true root and vascular system (xylem or phloem) or outer cuticle, having no control over loss which can be rapid, and internal water content is in equilibrium with that of the atmosphere 3,5. This condition is said to be poikilohydric. Due to this intimate coupling with environmental moisture, mosse s may dehydrate completely in dry air (i.e. no barrier to water loss represented by the cuticle in higher plants)3. Although many moss species can withstand desiccation by dormancy, this comes at an expense of suspending growth and metabolism. They are dependent on availability of free water and mineral slats at the land surface as they do not possess true roots, with rhizoids present for anchorage on the substratum 3. As the root system is deficient, mosses depend largely upon the direct absorption of water through the leaves. Owing to the failure of the gametophyte to produce true vascular tissue with support structures they are unable to attain large dimensions or growth above ground exhibited in higher plants 3,5.Sexual reproduction is facilitated by water (as in algae) via motile male gametes. Only when mosses are covered water can the reproductive organs open and permit the sperm to escape and penetrate the open neck of the archegonium, and thus reach the egg cell. In this reg ard mosses are essentially amphibious in nature, i.e. they require uninterrupted access to water for reproductive success 3,8. As a result mosses may typically be found hugging wet soil, or living in permanently moist habitats, avoiding exposure to turbulent drier air found above the land surface 3,8.Mosses are also set apart from vascular plants on the basis that the non-sexual sporophyte is permanently associated with the gametophyte and never establishes on the substrate. Within higher plants it is recognised that dominance in the land environment is derived from sporophyte of basal archegoniate lineages 2,8. It is evident that in the evolution of the sporophyte, the most significant fact is the progressive reduction of the spore product and increasing dominance of the sporophyte generation in the plants life-cycle, compared with the gametophyte 2. In liverworts the life-cycle of the sporophyte is brief, its exclusive function being in spore production.In mosses the growth period of the sporophyte is greatly prolonged and spore production becomes less important. This trend towards increasing subordination of the gametophyte and increasing importance of the sporophyte in mosses may be manifested in tissue differentiation found in the sporophyte 2. It is evident that the sporophyte of mosses possesses vascular tissue with photosynthetic cells 3. Although the sporophyte is able prolong growth on account of the production of green tissue, it is still dependent on the gametophyte for water. In higher plants, by the development of the root to acquire water from subterranean sources, the sporophyte becomes truly independent 4,.In contrast to the level of developmental complexity present in mosses, it can be argued that homoiohydric characters exhibited in the tracheophytes; a lignified vascular system of xylem and phloem, an impermeable cuticle surrounding vegetative tissues, stomata and seed in higher tracheophytes are a higher state of plant organisation and the ultimate solution to the problem of adaptation to life on land, providing greater independence from water 5. The properties of vascular tissue allow the formation of a transport system conducting water and photosynthate around the multicellular body, thus allowing the development of large complex bodies of roots and leaves7. Additionally, lignified vascular tissue provides a means of mechanical support in large tracheophytes allowing for the erect habit, in contrast to the dorsiventrally flattened posture in mosses7.With an extensive root network, the homoiohydric system allows the maintenance of activity despite sudden changes in humidity as roots penetrate readily available subterranean sources of water i.e. greater period of growth than mosses7. The waterproof cuticle provides a means of reducing water loss trough evaporation and also a barrier to gaseous diffusion. The stomata perforating the cuticles provide avenues for gas exchange, however, also presenting a sight of water l oss. The guard cells limit the rate at which water is lost through stomatal openings via transpiration7. These adaptations exert greater control over water economy and are thus seen to be more effective and dependable than the bryophytic strategy.The tendency in tracheophytes has been to develop reproductive strategies which did not depend on the existence of standing water (e.g., pollen, seeds, flowers). Instead of developing swimming sperm, male gametes are carried in pollen grains from microsporangia with pollination achieved via entrainment into wind or through insects. The development of the seed habit has facilitated the adjustment of plants to strictly terrestrial conditions, with the angiosperms reaching the most perfect expression of the plant organism. Seeds are specialised to resist adverse conditions and can remain dormant until conditions are suitable for germination. Furthermore, the seed may be modified to facilitate dispersal from the parent gametophyte. Thus tracheo phytes have become sufficiently productive to form closed cover over large areas, and is ultimately manifested in the enormous global coverage of phytomass.Poikilohydry as an opportunityWithout a doubt, vascular plants are adaptive optimums within habitats charaterised by adequate soil water. However, the homoiohydric system has success within certain limits defined by temperature and the availability of water 5,7. Mosses are the successors of ecological niches characterised by intermittent water availability due to their ability suspend metabolism during periods of drought (escaping the need for metabolic function) and resume activity rapidly with available water 3,5,6. This feature is known as desiccation tolerance (DT) and is common to various functionally dissimilar species. For poikilohydrous organisms in general, and bryophytes in particular, DT can be argued to be an optimal adaptation to habitats characterised by extreme fluctuations in water availability (i.e. functionally specialised stress-tolerators)3,5. The pervasiveness of mosses in dry habitats provides an alternative perspective on mosses in contrast to the tone already set in this paper.As mosses rapidly equilibrate internal moisture with that of the environment, mechanisms allowing tolerance of dry periods is essential 6. DT is characteristic of a variety of moss gametophytes, and is common of both xeric and mesic habitats 3. DT mosses may colonise rocky, thin soil (drought prone) substrates impenetrable to roots and the bark of trees 5. DT is an obvious adaptive advantage in habitats characterised dry, sun-exposed rock surfaces with intermittent rain. Even in wet climates, moisture is not available continuously. For example, hard substrates dry quickly after rain stops, therefore, DT mosses would possess fitness in this niche5. In this situation it would be an advantage to be small in size1. Growth and reproduction occur only during these wet seasons, but upon drying the gametophyte can susp end metabolism for considerable time periods7. Desiccation tolerance is well documented in mosses.Tortula ruralis can be reduced to 20% of its original weight in 2 hours and even after prolonged periods (10 months) of desiccation resumes metabolic activity within minutes of receiving an adequate water supply7. Andreadea rothii is characteristic of hard acidic mountain rocks, and can recommence normal metabolism after 12 months desiccation at 32% rh and 20OC 5. Recovery takes place quickly, and depends on the conservation of cellular components through the drying-re-wetting cycle5. Chlorophyll-fluorescence measurements show that photosystem recovery after re-hydration is rapid9.The recovery of respiration after prolonged desiccation similarly shows recovery in mosses5. It has been suggested that recovery after desiccation involves the reestablishment of membrane integrity and photosystems10.At the scale of a moss gametophyte colony, surface tension is determines the distribution of w ater around the vegetative tissue5. Therefore, shoots and leaves tend to lie dorsiventrally flattened on the laminar atmospheric boundary5. The LAI of the moss leaf canopies tends to be greater than that of vascular plants and is comparable in some species (Scleropodium spp.) to the mesophyll/leaf-area quotients of vascular plants indicating scale as important determinants of morphology5. Additionally, it can be noted that mosses and vascular plants have similar rates of photosynthesis on a per-chlorophyll basis5. The physical structure of many mosses allows the short term storage of external capillary water3. The hydroid conducting cells of some large mosses (e.g. Polytrichaceae, Dawsoniaceae) may be an evolutionary parallel to the xylem tissue of vascular plants in that both represent a low resistance pathway for water transport3,5. However, typically water movement is extracellular involving intricate conducting structures.The ability of bryophytes to survive desiccation is attri buted to conservation of polyribosomes during desiccation period3,6. In Tortula after 90 minutes in a dry atmosphere, a decline in fresh weight by 20% was observed6. However, it retained distinct polyribosome pools which increased with increasing hydration time3. This is in contrast to vascular plants where extreme water stress induces an irreversible degredation in polyribosome activity. In addition there is evidence to suggest that the activity of antioxidant enzymes is a response in mosses and other DT organisms to oxidative stress induced by desiccation11. Oxidative damage has been shown to be less in DT organisms such as Tortula than desiccation sensitive vascular plants12.In mosses there exists species specific differences in relation to their desiccation tolerance3. It has been observed that mosses characteristic of exposed habitats such as Tortula ruralis can recover rapidly after desiccation5. This may be an adaptation to maximise growth during a water regime that is transi ent. This is in contrast to forest-floor dwellers such as Rhytidiadelphus loreus where recovery of photosynthesis following drying takes several hours more5.There exists approximately 14000 species of moss exhibiting world-wide distribution and are able to grow luxuriantly in the humid climate of temperate and tropical regions.3 Fundamentally, mosses are able to persist in extreme conditions of arctic and alpine regions and can tolerate semi-arid conditions. Largely associated with their remarkable regeneration capacity, mosses exhibit great diversity in the ecological conditions in which they can pervade, proving in particular habitats to be the adaptively optimum plant organism. Poikilohydry in mosses an ecological limitation or opportunity Essay Example Poikilohydry in mosses: an ecological limitation or opportunity Essay The most significant evolutionary event in the history of the plant kingdom began with the migration of aquatic photosynthetic organisms on to land approximately 475 Myr ago 1,2. Terrestrial embryophytes (referred to as embryophytes) derived from algal ancestors constitute two divisions, the bryophytes (lacking vascular tissue) and the tracheophytes (possessing vascular conducting tissues) 2. The evolutionary transition from aquatic photoautotrophs heralded the innovation of morphological and physiological characteristics critical for success in the terrestrial habitat, and consequent diversification of land plants.It has been hypothesised that early bryophyte related groups pioneered the transition from water to life on land 1,2,4. The mosses appear to be among the most ancient divisions of the land plants. Fossils of spores and gametophytes dating from the Mid Ordivician (~476 Myr) and Mid Sliurian (~432 Myr) have been discovered that closely resemble some modern bryophytes 4. Furt hermore, the remains of fossilised spore-bearing organs and vascular tissues from the Lower Devonian (~410 Myr) reveal similarity in anatomical details to living mosses 4. This paleobotanical evidence combined with phylogenetic studies suggests that groups related to extant mosses are primitive ancestors of the major taxonomic groups of terrestrial plants.In the comparatively uniform environment of aquatic life there is much less scope for variation in abiotic factors and hence natural selection. Light availability vertically through the water column is the major limiting factor. Photosynthetic organisms surrounded by water have no requirement for specialised anatomical features for water absorption, as diffusion occurs across the whole cellular surface, nor do aquatics require adaptive measures to protect against water loss through evaporation. Furthermore, a submersed plant requires no mechanical tissues as the buoyant force of water provides the necessary support 1,5. In contrast , plants entering the terrestrial environment are exposed to a greater variation in the fundamental abiotic conditions including moisture, temperature (rainforest and tundra), light and gravitation.In particular, the land environment exhibits dehydrating affects from the atmosphere and water may be continually lost through evaporation. Water and nutrients may be continuous underground, however, dependence on light requires the aboveground presence of photosynthetic tissue where water is often irregular 1,5. Therefore, suitable water relations are a prerequisite to survival on land. Embryophytes are able to tolerate the desiccating affects of the land environment and exhibit numerous morphological and physiological departures from the ancestral aquatic state. Depending on their ability to compensate for fluctuations in water supply and rate of evaporation, embryophytes may be classified as poikilohydric or homoiohydric 5.Poikilohydry as a limitationMosses represent the oldest living remnants of initial land colonisation. It can be viewed the mosses represent a primitive condition of plant development 4. Mosses can be said to represent an evolutionary intermediate between algal ancestors and the vascular plants, manifested in features that may be more in common with aquatic algae or lichens and are said not to be fully terrestrialised or having a greater reliance on water 4,5,7,8. However, moss gametophytes do exhibit innovations such as tissue differentiation (leaves, rhizoids) and primitive vascularisation 3.It is in the gametophyte form of mosses where the potential for land development in some ecological scenarios may be limited. The gametophyte does not posses a true root and vascular system (xylem or phloem) or outer cuticle, having no control over loss which can be rapid, and internal water content is in equilibrium with that of the atmosphere 3,5. This condition is said to be poikilohydric. Due to this intimate coupling with environmental moisture, mosse s may dehydrate completely in dry air (i.e. no barrier to water loss represented by the cuticle in higher plants)3. Although many moss species can withstand desiccation by dormancy, this comes at an expense of suspending growth and metabolism. They are dependent on availability of free water and mineral slats at the land surface as they do not possess true roots, with rhizoids present for anchorage on the substratum 3. As the root system is deficient, mosses depend largely upon the direct absorption of water through the leaves. Owing to the failure of the gametophyte to produce true vascular tissue with support structures they are unable to attain large dimensions or growth above ground exhibited in higher plants 3,5.Sexual reproduction is facilitated by water (as in algae) via motile male gametes. Only when mosses are covered water can the reproductive organs open and permit the sperm to escape and penetrate the open neck of the archegonium, and thus reach the egg cell. In this reg ard mosses are essentially amphibious in nature, i.e. they require uninterrupted access to water for reproductive success 3,8. As a result mosses may typically be found hugging wet soil, or living in permanently moist habitats, avoiding exposure to turbulent drier air found above the land surface 3,8.Mosses are also set apart from vascular plants on the basis that the non-sexual sporophyte is permanently associated with the gametophyte and never establishes on the substrate. Within higher plants it is recognised that dominance in the land environment is derived from sporophyte of basal archegoniate lineages 2,8. It is evident that in the evolution of the sporophyte, the most significant fact is the progressive reduction of the spore product and increasing dominance of the sporophyte generation in the plants life-cycle, compared with the gametophyte 2. In liverworts the life-cycle of the sporophyte is brief, its exclusive function being in spore production.In mosses the growth period of the sporophyte is greatly prolonged and spore production becomes less important. This trend towards increasing subordination of the gametophyte and increasing importance of the sporophyte in mosses may be manifested in tissue differentiation found in the sporophyte 2. It is evident that the sporophyte of mosses possesses vascular tissue with photosynthetic cells 3. Although the sporophyte is able prolong growth on account of the production of green tissue, it is still dependent on the gametophyte for water. In higher plants, by the development of the root to acquire water from subterranean sources, the sporophyte becomes truly independent 4,.In contrast to the level of developmental complexity present in mosses, it can be argued that homoiohydric characters exhibited in the tracheophytes; a lignified vascular system of xylem and phloem, an impermeable cuticle surrounding vegetative tissues, stomata and seed in higher tracheophytes are a higher state of plant organisation and the ultimate solution to the problem of adaptation to life on land, providing greater independence from water 5. The properties of vascular tissue allow the formation of a transport system conducting water and photosynthate around the multicellular body, thus allowing the development of large complex bodies of roots and leaves7. Additionally, lignified vascular tissue provides a means of mechanical support in large tracheophytes allowing for the erect habit, in contrast to the dorsiventrally flattened posture in mosses7.With an extensive root network, the homoiohydric system allows the maintenance of activity despite sudden changes in humidity as roots penetrate readily available subterranean sources of water i.e. greater period of growth than mosses7. The waterproof cuticle provides a means of reducing water loss trough evaporation and also a barrier to gaseous diffusion. The stomata perforating the cuticles provide avenues for gas exchange, however, also presenting a sight of water l oss. The guard cells limit the rate at which water is lost through stomatal openings via transpiration7. These adaptations exert greater control over water economy and are thus seen to be more effective and dependable than the bryophytic strategy.The tendency in tracheophytes has been to develop reproductive strategies which did not depend on the existence of standing water (e.g., pollen, seeds, flowers). Instead of developing swimming sperm, male gametes are carried in pollen grains from microsporangia with pollination achieved via entrainment into wind or through insects. The development of the seed habit has facilitated the adjustment of plants to strictly terrestrial conditions, with the angiosperms reaching the most perfect expression of the plant organism. Seeds are specialised to resist adverse conditions and can remain dormant until conditions are suitable for germination. Furthermore, the seed may be modified to facilitate dispersal from the parent gametophyte. Thus tracheo phytes have become sufficiently productive to form closed cover over large areas, and is ultimately manifested in the enormous global coverage of phytomass.Poikilohydry as an opportunityWithout a doubt, vascular plants are adaptive optimums within habitats charaterised by adequate soil water. However, the homoiohydric system has success within certain limits defined by temperature and the availability of water 5,7. Mosses are the successors of ecological niches characterised by intermittent water availability due to their ability suspend metabolism during periods of drought (escaping the need for metabolic function) and resume activity rapidly with available water 3,5,6. This feature is known as desiccation tolerance (DT) and is common to various functionally dissimilar species. For poikilohydrous organisms in general, and bryophytes in particular, DT can be argued to be an optimal adaptation to habitats characterised by extreme fluctuations in water availability (i.e. functionally specialised stress-tolerators)3,5. The pervasiveness of mosses in dry habitats provides an alternative perspective on mosses in contrast to the tone already set in this paper.As mosses rapidly equilibrate internal moisture with that of the environment, mechanisms allowing tolerance of dry periods is essential 6. DT is characteristic of a variety of moss gametophytes, and is common of both xeric and mesic habitats 3. DT mosses may colonise rocky, thin soil (drought prone) substrates impenetrable to roots and the bark of trees 5. DT is an obvious adaptive advantage in habitats characterised dry, sun-exposed rock surfaces with intermittent rain. Even in wet climates, moisture is not available continuously. For example, hard substrates dry quickly after rain stops, therefore, DT mosses would possess fitness in this niche5. In this situation it would be an advantage to be small in size1. Growth and reproduction occur only during these wet seasons, but upon drying the gametophyte can susp end metabolism for considerable time periods7. Desiccation tolerance is well documented in mosses.Tortula ruralis can be reduced to 20% of its original weight in 2 hours and even after prolonged periods (10 months) of desiccation resumes metabolic activity within minutes of receiving an adequate water supply7. Andreadea rothii is characteristic of hard acidic mountain rocks, and can recommence normal metabolism after 12 months desiccation at 32% rh and 20OC 5. Recovery takes place quickly, and depends on the conservation of cellular components through the drying-re-wetting cycle5. Chlorophyll-fluorescence measurements show that photosystem recovery after re-hydration is rapid9.The recovery of respiration after prolonged desiccation similarly shows recovery in mosses5. It has been suggested that recovery after desiccation involves the reestablishment of membrane integrity and photosystems10.At the scale of a moss gametophyte colony, surface tension is determines the distribution of w ater around the vegetative tissue5. Therefore, shoots and leaves tend to lie dorsiventrally flattened on the laminar atmospheric boundary5. The LAI of the moss leaf canopies tends to be greater than that of vascular plants and is comparable in some species (Scleropodium spp.) to the mesophyll/leaf-area quotients of vascular plants indicating scale as important determinants of morphology5. Additionally, it can be noted that mosses and vascular plants have similar rates of photosynthesis on a per-chlorophyll basis5. The physical structure of many mosses allows the short term storage of external capillary water3. The hydroid conducting cells of some large mosses (e.g. Polytrichaceae, Dawsoniaceae) may be an evolutionary parallel to the xylem tissue of vascular plants in that both represent a low resistance pathway for water transport3,5. However, typically water movement is extracellular involving intricate conducting structures.The ability of bryophytes to survive desiccation is attri buted to conservation of polyribosomes during desiccation period3,6. In Tortula after 90 minutes in a dry atmosphere, a decline in fresh weight by 20% was observed6. However, it retained distinct polyribosome pools which increased with increasing hydration time3. This is in contrast to vascular plants where extreme water stress induces an irreversible degredation in polyribosome activity. In addition there is evidence to suggest that the activity of antioxidant enzymes is a response in mosses and other DT organisms to oxidative stress induced by desiccation11. Oxidative damage has been shown to be less in DT organisms such as Tortula than desiccation sensitive vascular plants12.In mosses there exists species specific differences in relation to their desiccation tolerance3. It has been observed that mosses characteristic of exposed habitats such as Tortula ruralis can recover rapidly after desiccation5. This may be an adaptation to maximise growth during a water regime that is transi ent. This is in contrast to forest-floor dwellers such as Rhytidiadelphus loreus where recovery of photosynthesis following drying takes several hours more5.There exists approximately 14000 species of moss exhibiting world-wide distribution and are able to grow luxuriantly in the humid climate of temperate and tropical regions.3 Fundamentally, mosses are able to persist in extreme conditions of arctic and alpine regions and can tolerate semi-arid conditions. Largely associated with their remarkable regeneration capacity, mosses exhibit great diversity in the ecological conditions in which they can pervade, proving in particular habitats to be the adaptively optimum plant organism.

Free Essays on American Exceptionalism In The New World

American’s as a whole would like to think that the United States is the greatest nation on the planet, and for the most part we do. It has been driven into our heads, seen on television and cheered at sporting events. Whether or not this assumption is true, it is easy understood that Americans have an egotistical mindset as a whole. This â€Å"mindset† is often referred to as American Exceptionalism and its roots can be drawn from as far away as Europe and chronologically dates back to our nation’s birth. During the seventeenth century Europe was becoming a difficult and unattractive place to live for many of its inhabitants. Overcrowding of major cities, disease, and tyrannical rule allowed Europeans to dream of a better life, a life which would allow them to follow their religion and apply themselves for their own good and prosperity. Europe’s social order was the major concern for those looking to further themselves. Two groups usually formed Europe’s social order, this being the rich and poor. As the saying goes â€Å"the rich get richer and the poor get poorer†, leaving false hopes for those born in to a poverty stricken community. The law of the land was actually the law of the church leaving no separation between church and state, or government. Although this may sound quite confining for today’s citizens it was the norm not only in Europe but all over the world. As is human nature many non conformists were looking for something better, a place where they could attain a pure civilization removed from corruption and deception. A community where people were treated equally, could practice any religion, and further themselves with hard work and dedication. A new form of government was also a major concern to deserters of Europe. They no longer wanted a single monarch to control all aspects of their day to day lives. The idea of democratic rule had been brought forward by Montesquie, and was gaining popularity and under... Free Essays on American Exceptionalism In The New World Free Essays on American Exceptionalism In The New World American’s as a whole would like to think that the United States is the greatest nation on the planet, and for the most part we do. It has been driven into our heads, seen on television and cheered at sporting events. Whether or not this assumption is true, it is easy understood that Americans have an egotistical mindset as a whole. This â€Å"mindset† is often referred to as American Exceptionalism and its roots can be drawn from as far away as Europe and chronologically dates back to our nation’s birth. During the seventeenth century Europe was becoming a difficult and unattractive place to live for many of its inhabitants. Overcrowding of major cities, disease, and tyrannical rule allowed Europeans to dream of a better life, a life which would allow them to follow their religion and apply themselves for their own good and prosperity. Europe’s social order was the major concern for those looking to further themselves. Two groups usually formed Europe’s social order, this being the rich and poor. As the saying goes â€Å"the rich get richer and the poor get poorer†, leaving false hopes for those born in to a poverty stricken community. The law of the land was actually the law of the church leaving no separation between church and state, or government. Although this may sound quite confining for today’s citizens it was the norm not only in Europe but all over the world. As is human nature many non conformists were looking for something better, a place where they could attain a pure civilization removed from corruption and deception. A community where people were treated equally, could practice any religion, and further themselves with hard work and dedication. A new form of government was also a major concern to deserters of Europe. They no longer wanted a single monarch to control all aspects of their day to day lives. The idea of democratic rule had been brought forward by Montesquie, and was gaining popularity and under...

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For Further Thought Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

For Further Thought - Essay Example The ethical issues arising before a teacher researcher may be dealt with easily in case you’ve got a sense of tact and have respect to other people. And yet, it is very useful to be reminded of professional ethics from time to time. As you read the chapter you feel embarrassed as to the results of the study undertook in the Billabong Elementary School, which aim was sooner to prove once again the advantages of the school in order to share them with the rest of the world. Even on the condition that we do not work at the school there appears a rash desire to change and improve everything. This is not our task, however. A teacher researcher is an outside observer, polite, thoughtful, and respectful. I find that the ethical guideline for teacher research outlined in the article is of great value for both beginning and working researchers. It is a kind of basic rules to be followed in work, which is associated with much intimacy and interpersonal relationships. The article provided a clear vision of answers to the questions put, though I felt rather confused at first. As to the data drawing a negative picture of individual teachers in the school, there exist certain rules concerning the how to do a research. It is very important to inform the faculty about the problems the school has. However, it should be done in an impersonal manner, without concrete names and grades. The confidentiality and anonymity are the major requirements of any research. So the faculty and the director should be explained the rules at once and informed that no names will be mentioned. A good professional will always understand his mistakes without being personally pointed to them. The rest of the faculty did not know about the problem, so let them stay unaware of their colleagues’ mistakes. It is not our task to prosecute anybody. We only propose help; people should make choices and decisions themselves. Moreover, the results of the study showed

Sources Of Competitive Advantage Tourism Essay

Sources Of Competitive Advantage Tourism Essay Abu Dhabi is the capital city and largest out of the seven emirates of the UAE; it constitutes for 85 of the UAEs total land mass. It is home to just over 613,000 people. However, it is the second largest city after Dubai. Over the recent years, Abu Dhabi has evolved into an international conurbation. It is the epicenter of the UAEs political and industrial activities. The city is also home to prime officials, such as the royal Emir Family and the United Arab Emirates central, federal government. Abu Dhabi is considered to be one of the worlds largest producers of oil and a pantheon for regional commerce. Abu Dhabi has been recently putting in tremendous effort to actively diversify it economy through multiple investments in financial services as well as the tourism sector. From the tourism perspective, Abu Dhabi is considered to be one of the worlds most fastest growing tourism destinations. Also, it is deemed to be a city that offers its visitors an opportunity to experience a comb ination of culture-rich tradition, modernity, adventure, and utter relaxation. Alongside that, Abu Dhabi is also a place where people can experience aesthetic beauty both in terms of the natural landscapes and contemporary architectural designs. In addition, the Abu Dhabi International Airport has also been ranked among the best airports in the Middle East region. Given its blissful beaches, luxurious hotels, and all-embracing shopping experience, Abu Dhabi is an ideal destination for tourists and visitors. Destination Mission: Abu Dhabi has set long-term goals with respect to its tourism plans and priorities. Bearing in mind its initial plans of development and sustainability, the tourism sector in Abu Dhabi plans to achieve certain key strategic goals over the next year. According to the Abu Dhabi Tourism Authority (ABTA), they are aiming to collectively building a world class tourism destination (http://www.abudhabitourism.ae, 2012) via developing an extensive range of products that fulfill the needs of their target markets, and by developing some form of awareness with regards to their target market and by creating the necessary level of proficiency in the marketplace. From our standpoint, our mission is to create a marketing plan that will promote Abu Dhabi as an exceptional and globally recognized tourism destination. Abu Dhabis Competitive advantage: As Abu Dhabi continues its growth, it has managed to gain competitive advantage a customer base as well as on a product/service base and that is through enhancing the citys infrastructure to reduce traffic, build a more environment friendly city (Masdar City), and the biggest yet to come, the metro. Abu Dhabi reflects a relaxed yet sophisticated lifestyle. Its a busy city and a very important business hub but yet maintains a quiet life unlike Dubai which is the city that never sleeps. And it is all in line with Abu Dhabis vision. It has become the perfect holiday getaway along with pleasure with business where now a business trip can also mean a good time for the family as well. Sources of competitive advantage: Etihad airways UAEs second national carrier and one of the leading award winning airline, offering the best services for their customers and projecting Abu Dhabis true hospitality. Having top notch services in the aviation industry gives tourist their first best experience in Abu Dhabi as soon as they choose them as a way to get there. Experience: For these seeking a unique thriving experience these are some of the thing to do while in Abu Dhabi: Yas Island: just an hour and a half away from Dubai hosting state of the art hotels, F1 races in Yas Marina Circuit, residential area by the beach, and fun family time in Ferrari World. Get the chance to ride the track in Yas Marina Circuit. Abu Dhabi islands: Saadiyat Island if relaxation and resorts is what you need, and Sir Bani Yas to explore UAEs natural preserve and largest island, as well as Delma Island, holding the Gulfs most important pearl diving centers. Desert balloon expeditions Helicopter tours Cruise tours Sports and Recreation: Sports lovers will have a great share of excitement in Abu Dhabi with some out of many of activities for them to do such as: Golf Water sports and sailing Motor Sports and karting Off-road driving Shooting Fishing Diving Horse riding Tennis; with Mubadalas World tennis championship. Shopping: Shopping lovers and fashionistas will indeed have a great shopping experience in Abu Dhabi and these are some of the places and goods they can shop for: Best buys and bargaining Shopping malls Carpets Art Arabian and local souvenirs (Sougha) Luxury retail Traditional markets and souks Gold jewelry Culture and Heritage: A famous quote is exchanged between people in the middle east and to be specific within the Arabian Gulf region: one who doesnt have a past, doesnt not have a future, and from there we take on the words of our late leaders and visionaries to illustrate how the Emirates and Abu Dhabi to be exact takes its steps in growing and blooming. Hence, Abu Dhabis heritage villages theme park, and archeological sites in Sir Bani Yas illustrate the UAEs rich culture and heritage. Other Amazing Must-See Sites: Masdar City and Masdar institute: a place on almost everyones destinations list to see the completely sustainable building and environment friendly city. The Grand Mosque: one of the largest mosques featuring amazing Islamic architecture. The grand mosque has the capacity to host 41,000 worshippers, 82 domes, over 1000 columns, 24 carat gold gilded chandeliers and the worlds largest hand knotted carpet. Emirates Palace Al Ain Zoo Arabian Wildlife park in Sir Bani Yas island Course Project Focus: In the course project focus we would like to move away from the clichà © of Abu Dhabi being a business hub only and home of embassies and consulates, and go beyond that. Abu Dhabi is indeed much more than that. Its a vacation destination everywhere you look around beginning with Abu Dhabis cornice to Al Ains Oasis city, and not to mention the western region of the Empty Quarter desert in Al Gharbia for the adventure seekers  [1]  . We will construct a marketing plan to change our audience perception of Abu Dhabi and gain more attention and tourism attractiveness and shape tourism in Abu Dhabi, as well as to meet the goal of Abu Dhabis Economic growth vision in 2030. Section 3: SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS Industry Analysis: For the UAE as a whole, the tourism sector had another good year in 2011, although annual growth in foreign tourists slowed slightly to an estimated 11.0%. BMI anticipates a slowdown in the sector over the short term, with growth in arrivals forecast at about8% in 2012 (raised slightly this quarter). Growth in visitors from Europe to Dubai has been weak in recent years. Continuing favorable opportunities exist for the UAE to exploit regional tourism growth, such as from Saudi Arabia. The tourism industry has also become a notable bright spot for the construction sector. The most recent figures for Abu Dhabi for January-July show the emirate welcomed 1.37mn hotel guests, an 11% increase over the corresponding period in 2011. The already burgeoning tourism sector appears to have benefited from the Arab Spring, with tourists attracted away from other locations in the region. Given the ongoing instability, there is potential for the industry to benefit further in this regard. Annual tourist visits is expected to rise from 1.8 million visitors in 2010 to 2.7 million by 2013 and to 7.5 million by 2030. Every aspect of the strategy works towards showcasing Abu Dhabi as an exclusive, high-end tourist destination where visitors can engage in world-class business and relax. SWOT Analysis: TOURISM IN ABU DHABI ENVIRONMENT EVALUATION INTERNAL STRENGTHS Base to a large number of leading corporations in the world Presence of leading luxury hotels Easy access worldwide due to close proximity of Abu Dhabi Intl Airport Well laid out and congestion-free streets Wide array of destinations and events for a family holiday WEAKNESSES Lacks the luster and glamour of neighboring Dubai Development and implementation of projects is slow Does not cater much towards young single adults. EXTERNAL OPPORTUNITIES Rising global position of the region Presence of natural resources (petroleum) Ever expanding globalization THREATS Rise of other oil states like Qatar and Kuwait Disturbances in the region Overview of SWOT Analysis: The SWOT analysis sums up the strengths and weaknesses of the tourism industry of Abu Dhabi. The above table shows us that the tourism industry in Abu Dhabi has the potential to grow and become one of the largest in the region. Being the Capital of the United Arab Emirates has made Abu Dhabi home to most of the head offices of leading global corporations in the region. The large number of luxury hotels makes Abu Dhabi a prime location to host business events and conventions. Abu Dhabi caters to families also by having a variety of cultural destinations as well as those that cater to fun. The Ferrari world in Abu Dhabi, The upcoming Yas Waterpark, The Grand Prix and rock concerts such as Creamfields is an attraction that pulls in lots of fun seeking crowds. Abu Dhabi unlike Dubai lacks certain glamour, with tourism and business not being the prime source of income, the implementation of projects is quite slow. Dubai and other oil states in the MENA region are therefore a competition t o Abu Dhabi that cannot be ignored. Competition: Competition for tourism in Abu Dhabi involves both local and international level competition. At the local level, it faces tough competition mainly from its sibling Dubai the Las Vegas of the middle east. Abu Dhabi has announced new ambitious tourism targets, complemented by a US$30 million marketing budget and huge infrastructure projects, and it is opening up representative offices around the world and attending world travel fairs. The emirates ambitions would appear identical to Dubais but this sibling wants to be different. However the end product differs from Dubai, Abu Dhabi is now throwing impressive figures into the mix in a bid to attract an estimated U$11 billion in tourism projects by 2015. Ultimately Abu Dhabi may develop a superior tourism product to Dubai, buts its path to achieve this will follow Dubais development example, which has shown what you can achieve with a well-coordinated and funded marketing approach. On the other hand, Abu Dhabi faces solid competition from the other metropolitan cities around the world and renown for tourism. Abu Dhabi has still not turned out to be a popular word among the people around the world and this is what Abu Dhabi needs to aim at. With strong marketing strategies and effective implementation along with determination, Abu Dhabi can definitely reach this goal with top rankings in the worlds best destinations. Customer Analysis: The customers in a tourism industry are nothing but the tourists. These tourists visit a county for either of the two purposes Business or Leisure. Abu Dhabi, being a place which was known for standing up during the recession period and still booming in the market at a good rate with a lot of upcoming projects proves to be a good attraction to business entrepreneurs around the world. Abu Dhabi should definitely focus more on attracting customers who visit for business purposes. At the same time, families and other people who need to take a trip for fun could satisfy themselves in Abu Dhabi with the numerous attractions. Abu Dhabi has attractions for all the age groups and if people know more about the attractions and events in Abu Dhabi, theyll definitely not miss out on these. People nowadays are becoming more aware of and interested in tours and Abu Dhabi has very good potential to cater to the interests of all age groups. Abu Dhabi has enough to serve both the types of customers very well and this is what that makes it an effective place for tourism. Section 4: SEGEMENTATION, TARGETING, AND POSITIONING (STP) Market Segmentation: When it comes to tourism planning and strategy formulation, it is of utmost importance to segment the market prior pursuing a course of action or marketing plan. Market segmentation refers to breaking down or classifying the market at hand into submarkets or segments based on certain characteristics or aspects. Such characteristics (demographics and psychographics) may include age, purpose of travel, and opportunities available to them. In our case, promoting Abu Dhabi as the next big tourism destination, the tourism market can be broken down into several segments. The first main segment is families, which consist of parents and children- perhaps also young adults within the household- and even senior members like grandparents. This segment can be further divided into different age groups. For example, this classification can be done as follows: toddlers and children ranging from the age of 5 to 12, teenagers and young adults starting from 13 years of age up to 19, a youth category w hich encompasses the younger generation (i.e. 20 to 29 years old), and lastly the adults or seniors which are mainly above the age of 30. The second main market segment would be the business travelers. As mentioned earlier in the project, Abu Dhabi is a regional hotspot for business opportunities and investments. Thus, it can attract potential businesspeople. As a result, it is important to consider professionals as a segment within that particular market. Lastly, a third possible segment could be individual/pair travelers such as bachelors, singles, newlyweds (honeymooners), couples without children, and finally, retired or senior couples. Target Market Identification: To target a particular segment, a particular destination must prove what is has to offer to be of value to the targeted market. In this case, we believe the predominant target market would be families. There are many reasons why Abu Dhabi would consider promoting itself to families, and conversely, there are many reasons why families might consider Abu Dhabi for their next vacation spot. When firms are marketing a certain product or service, the consumer must understand what the product or service uniquely offers to them compared to that of its competitor and what added value it provides. Similarly, a tourism destination must offer its tourists a unique experience in every regard. It is easy for a family to pick a destination that has amazing parks, state of the art resorts, and large shopping malls, but the question is, what is so different about a beach in Salalah, Oman, a resort in Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt, and a shopping mall in Dubai, with what Abu Dhabi has to offer? What is it e xactly that pushes a family to visit one place over another? The answer is value and experience. The experience and joyful memory is what stays with a person, especially after a trip or vacation. Abu Dhabi is home to many things that a vacationing family would be on the lookout for. There are many activities that one can do both indoors and outdoors. A business man flying to Abu Dhabi to close some deals can worry no more about leaving his family back home. While hes busy during the day his wife can take away the kids to Ferrari World, or if theyre a couple with no kids, the wife can go out shopping or enjoying a relaxing spa day in Saadiyat island resort. Nevertheless, business and pleasure has become a very do-able thing in Abu Dhabi where business partners can take a cruise along the sea, golf, or competing on the tennis course while discussing work. What makes Abu Dhabi different is that the visitors do not have to worry about getting stuck in traffic while getting from one place to another. The activities venues are very spread out all over Abu Dhabi beginning with Yas Island, just an hour and a half away from Dubai, to Al Gharbia the western region of the Empty Quarter desert. Additionally, Abu Dhabi has beautiful natural preserves and natural islands where the family can enjoy kayaking along and enjoy the natural beauty, and archeological specimens that reveals the rich heritage and culture of the UAE. Abu Dhabi is the destination where modernity and heritage meets, and greet its visitors with warm welcoming Arabian hospitality and traditions were inherited along the years and are carried on from one generation to the next, therefore the special treatment is always given away wherever you go about Abu Dhabi. Worry no more about what can your family can do à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ because theres fun for everyone in Abu Dhabi. Positioning A quote from His Excellency Mubarak Al Muhairi, director general of ADTA regarding Abu Dhabis positioning in the tourism industry says the following: Abu Dhabi is seeking to attract discerning tourists who will be attracted by a diversified product base of beach, nature, culture, sports, adventure and business tourism. Our mandate is to position Abu Dhabi as an international city of wealth and culture, while maintaining a balanced approach between development and environmental preservation and sustainability. In our five-year strategic plan, 2008-2012, we have prioritized wider international marketing of this destination and we envisage that by the end of this year we will have ADTA representative offices in Australia, Italy and China joining our existing overseas office network which serves our primary markets of the UK, Germany and France.  [2]  Thus, Abu Dhabi seeks growth in the tourism industry and position itself within the market using product characteristics and customer benefits as a positioning strategy. Section 5: MARKETING MIX MARKETING STRATEGY Marketing Mix: The proposed marketing mix for the betterment of the tourism industry of Abu Dhabi consists of four main elements: Product formulation, Pricing, Promotion and Place. Product Formulation: Product in the tourism industry is any benefits or quality of experience that meets the needs and wants of the customer. Abu Dhabi needs to ensure that the tourism experience that it provides its guests meets their needs. This can be done by ensuring top performance in four aspects of its product. Designed Characteristics: The tourism in Abu Dhabi can be given a boost by attracting more customers, this can be done by clubbing together different aspects of its tourism like cultural sites, hotels, leisure activities into single deals and promotions. Service Component: All tourism staff should undergo special training for interaction with customers. There should be a uniform form of administration for all tourism organizations within the emirate. When customers notice the same uniforms and procedures within different tourist spots within the country, it instills a form of familiarity within them. Branding/Ambience: Abu Dhabi should create a brand for itself as a top end tourist destination. The brand should consist of a catch phrase as well as a logo. The catch phrase should project in the mind of the traveler an image of the destination and a feel of the people and culture. The logo can include prominent structures of the emirate (eg. Sheikh Zayed Mosque, Leaning Tower of Abu Dhabi). Having a brand and its consequent promotion around the world will give a boost to the tourism industry in the emirate. Price: Pricing is a very important marketing strategy as it helps control the sales volume. Abu Dhabi has over 125 hotels, where many of these are five star hotels. The published prices of these hotels tend to be very high and do not attract a lot of customers. The tourism industry could create deals that club together hotels and different leisure activities and charge a promotional price. This way, the customer perceives more value for the cost they are paying. Abu Dhabi could also create seasonal pricing strategies that can cater a specific tourism season. Promotion: Promotion is perhaps the most visible of the four marketing mixes and perhaps what Abu Dhabi lacks the most. As a tourist destination, Abu Dhabi needs to send a global message that they are now ready to enter the tourism market. This can be done through hosting tourism exhibitions and signing contracts with international hotel groups and airlines for promotional prices. Publishing magazines and brochures as well as a more interactive advertising in travel websites can help make the consumers more aware of Abu Dhabi as a tourist destination. Place: In tourism, place does not refer to the destination alone, rather all points of sale for the destination. This includes travel agents, online booking as well as convenience of access. Abu Dhabi should start a tourism office in major cities around the world offering deals at promotional prices. Etihad Airways already connects Abu Dhabi to different parts of the world, ensuring ease of access to the city. Marketing Strategy: A well-developed efficient marketing strategy for the targeted segments is very trivial for growth of the product. This can be achieved by the following means: Sector Regulation: Work with industry sector stakeholders to enhance overall tourism sector standards. Develop and implement sector licensing and classification. Visitor Experience: Improved and consistent visitor experiences founded on unique culture character. Visitor services program Advocacy with other departments and agencies to meet the travelers needs. Accessibility: Significantly improved access to and within Abu Dhabi. Stakeholder Collaboration: Champion the development of the tourism industry with stakeholders. Tourism Product Development: Foster leisure and business tourism attractions and events. Promote Abu Dhabi: Promotion of Abu Dhabi as an international destination. Produce a steady stream of innovative event and concepts which are aligned to, and reinforce brand Abu Dhabi. Job Creation: Increase in skilled tourism employment and generate greater levels of Emirati participation. Organization Excellence: Increase the organizations effectiveness by operating with a streamlined structure, well-defined and documented processes and using the latest available technology tools. Workforce Development: Increase the organizations effectiveness and efficiencies by recruiting and retaining skilled employees and empowering them to the highest levels of professionalism with a customer focus attitude. Sustainable Tourism: Promote development of a sustainable tourism sector adding value to the local community.

Comparing Albert Camus The Stranger and Virginia Woolfs To the Lighth

Man's Place in Society and Nature in Albert Camus' The Stranger and Virginia Woolf's To the Lighthouse A general premise underlying the art of writing is that "language shapes and is shaped by the surrounding society" (McCarthy 41). Authors of an age attempt to effect a message through their writing, and inevitably this telegram to society reflects the temperament of the writer in reaction to his environment and historical context . In this light, Albert Camus' The Stranger (1942) and Virginia Woolf's To the Lighthouse (1927) are products of two separate cultures in an overlapping time period; Camus' sparse minimalistic prose and Woolf's lyrical, indulgent discourse represent two different stylistic approaches to a similar theme. The French existentialist and the English feminist distinctly manipulate the narrative structure and employ symbols and metaphors of nature to suggest the depersonalization and secondary importance of the individual in a society essentially incompatible with and indifferent to man. In particular, two excerpts from Camus and Woolf offer a wealth of stylistic devices in connection with their intended themes. From The Stranger, the chosen passage tells of the main character's (Meursalt) confrontation with a threatening Arab and his resulting murder. The selection from To the Lighthouse describes the general passage of time, using a more poetic manner with its emphasis on description over plot. Reform in the world correlates with reform in its literature's method of expression; an understanding of Camus' and Woolf's contemporary social backdrop provides insight into the origin and purpose of their works. Born in Algeria in 1913, Albert Camus grew up in a tough, working-class Algiers district and ... ...tranger. 1942. New Jersey: Penguin, 1955. pp 57-60. Cruickshank, John. Albert Camus and the Literature of Revolt. Oxford University Press, Inc. 1960. 249. Dyson, Ae, and Morris Beja, eds. To the Lighthouse. London: Macmillan, 1970. pp 19, 198. Gorsky, Susan. Virginia Woolf. Boston: Twayne, 1978. pp 15, 28, 49, 105, 108. King, Adele. Camus. Oliver and Boyd Ltd. 1964. 120. McCarthy, Patrick. The Stranger. University of Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Seltzer J., Alvin. "The Tension of Stalemate: Art and Chaos in Virginia Woolf's ' To the Lighthouse.'" Chaos in the Novel: The Novel in Chaos. Schocken Books, 1974. pp 120-140. Sprague, Claire. Virginia Woolf: A Collection of Critical Essays. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. pp 1-13. Woolf, Virginia. To the Lighthouse. 1927. New York: Harcourt Brace and Company, 1951. pp 131-133.

Deciding on the Marketing Program Essay

International companies or marketers may choose between two alternative approaches in developing its marketing strategies or marketing mix. These two approaches are: a. Global Marketing Strategy – defines a standard marketing mix and implements it with minimal modifications in all of its domestic and foreign markets. This standard approach saves money because it allows large-scale production runs and reinforces the brand’s image. It can foster collaborative innovation. Through global marketing strategy, Global firms can effectively market some goods and services to segments in many nations that share cultures and languages. This approach works best for products with strong, universal appeal such as McDonalds and for luxury products that target upscale consumers everywhere. b. Multidomestic Marketing Strategy- assumes the differences between market characteristics and competitive situations in certain nations require firms to customize their marketing decisions to effectively reach individual marketplaces. In other words, it is an application of market segmentation to foreign markets by tailoring the firm’s marketing mix to match specific target markets in each nation. Keegan has distinguished five adaptation strategies of product and promotion to a foreign market (see figure below). 1. Global Product Strategies a. Straight Extension – introducing the product in the foreign market without any changes. This strategy permits economies of scale in production and marketing, for it involves no additional R&D expense, manufacturing retooling, or promotional modification. Once implemented successfully, it cerates universal recognition of a product for consumers from country to country. b. Product Adaptation- involves altering the product to meet local conditions or preferences. There are several level of adapatations, it could be regional version, country version, city version and retailer version. c. Product Invention- consists of creating something new. It can take two forms, Backward invention and Forward invention. It is a costly strategy but the payoffs can be great. i. Backward Invention – is reintroducing esrlier product forms that are well adapted to a foreign country’s needs. ii. Forward Invention- is creating a new product to meet a need in another country. 2. Global Promotion Strategies d. Communication Adaptation – is the process in which a company run the same advertising and promotion campaigns used in the home market or change them for each local market. e. Dual Adaptation- is the process in which both the product and communication are being changed for each market/country. 3. Global Pricing Strategies Global Firms faces several pricing problems when selling abroad, they must deal with price escalation, transfer prices, dumping charges, and gray markets. f. Price Escalation- needs to adjust the marginal cost depending on the added costs including the currency-fluctustions risks to the product’s factory price inorder to attain the same profit locally. Because the price escalation varies from country to country, the question is how to sell the prices in different countries. Companies have three choices: iii. Setting uniform price everywhere iv. Setting a market-based price in each country v. Setting a cost-based price in each country g. Transfer Price- different prices that is being charged to its subsidiary in different countries/market h. Dumping – it occurs when a company charges either less than its costs or less than it charges in its home market, inorder to enter or win a market. i. Arm’s-lenght price – the rpice charged by other competitors for the same or a similar product j. Gray market – it occurs when the same product sells at different prices geographically. 4. Global Place (Distribution Channels) Strategies Many companies/manufactuers think their job is done oncethe product leaves the factory, however they should pay attention to how the product moves within the foreign country. They should take a whole-channel view of the problem of distributin products to final users. k. Seller’s international marketing headquarters- the export department or international division makes decisions on channels and other marketing mix- elements l. Channel’s between nation- gets the products to the borders of the foreign nation. The decision that is made on this link includes the types of intermediaries, type of tranportation, and financing and risk arrangements. m. Channel’s within foreign nations- gets the products from their entry point to final buyers and users. II. Deciding on the Marketing Organizations Companies manage their international marketing activities in three ways: through export departments, international divisions, or global organization. a. Export Department b. International Division i. Geographical Organization-each with vice presidents per region and each regional vice presidents has country managers who are responsible for a sales force, sales branches, distributors, and licensees in their respective country. ii. World Product Group-each with an international vice president responsible for worldwide sales of each product group iii. International Subsidiaries- each headed by a president c. Global Organization Several firms have become truly global organizations, these companies however faces several organizational complexities thus Bartlett and Ghoshal have proposed circumstances under which different approaches work best. They describe forces that favor ‘global integration’ versus ‘national responsiveness’. They distinguish three organizational strategies: d. A gloabl strategy treats the world as single market. e. A multinational strategy treats the world as a portfolio of national opportunities. f. A â€Å"glocal† strategy standardizes certain core elemetns and localizes oter elemets.

Henry V and Leadership Essay Example

Henry V and Leadership Essay Example Henry V and Leadership Essay Henry V and Leadership Essay Deanna Cunningham Leaders in todays work environment are faced with challenges that are similar to challenges faced in the past. Although technology has caused our challenges to be on a broader scale they still represent the same issues that have been faced for years regarding confidence in leadership and how to foster leadership. While in battle Henry V gave his soldiers the freedom of choice to fight with him or if they had the desire to leave, they could. He would not consider them deserters. By doing this he won loyalty and devotion from his men. Henry used rhetoric skill to achieve this result. He did not want his men to leave due to his small army size but he made his men believe the small army size was more desirable. This type of rhetoric is unquestionably invaluable in the leadership role. As Gardner stated, Effective leaders heighten motivation and confidence-if diminished leaders have a hard time leading (p. Xv) The film ,Henry V, clearly show leadership development, has gutsy leadership, and shows the five exemplary practices of leadership. A leader needs to carry trust and credibility if he wants his followers to believe in him. Henry showed doodling the way by his behavior throughout the movie. Souses and Posses wrote, Model the way is when titles are granted but your behavior is what wins you respect. Be a good example-live what you say. People follow first the person, then the plan (p. 14). An example of how Henry V stood by his rules and consistency is when Parabola was to be hung for stealing. He remained strong to his values and had his friend hung. You could see by Henrys face this was painful for him but he wanted his men to see they could trust him to stand behind the principles set forth. In Leadership Engine Itchy mentions the need for edge. The king shows his edge by his decision. This example can be used in any workplace. When a manager is friends with an employee they could easily allow that employee to perform at a lower level and still be given the same high performance review that another employee who excels Is given. If other employees see this they would not trust that manager and then would not respect or follow that mangers lead. A manager needs to lead by example. The friend would need to be evaluated fairly and if necessary, let go. Current leaders must have their rules consistently applied for them to be credible ND see their visions realized. Henrys speech at Saint Crispin inspired vision to his followers. This follows Souses and Posers theory of inspiring vision. They wrote that dreams or vision Is the force that invents the future. Leaders have a desire to make something happen. Leaders have to enlist others In a common villous(p. 14). Leaders must see the big picture to have a vision of the future. A true leader wants to share the vision, not be self servant for their own goals. They must look at the good of the whole organization. Blanchard and Bowels wrote in Gung Ho-Gift of the Goose. This is cheering each other on. Wild geese fly thousands of miles each year and they do It by cheering on another every Inch of the way, honking encouragement. All leaders could learn a lot from this analogy. A leader cannot achieve great outcomes alone. It takes a team AT Delivers. A leader must provoke a goal Ana mission. Henry V used rhetoric in his Saint Crispin speech when he motivated his soldiers by appealing to their sense of honor. He states, They have come so far, how they can turn back now? His men, although feeling despair believed they needed to intention the fight because it is what was right to do and they believed it. In a work place great leaders have to make sure their employees know the goal. The leaders must practice good communication, they must make their employees feel like they are part of the team. Leaders and their followers need to look at the future and imagine things that can be and how to achieve them. One cannot continually look in the review mirror. If one spends so much time ruminating in the past they will never be able to prepare for the future. Many people will see the glass as half empty instead of half full. These people will find excuses and problems where others may find learning experiences. A comment I read once said that, The present is but an instant that separates yesterday from tomorrow. A leader needs to provide the focus of the direction they are heading, the goal that is set. A leader does not have to be born as a leader. Leaders can develop anytime in their lifetime. To become a leader one must be able to create a lasting influence in the minds of people and make them believe that whatever the leader is doing is for their benefit. Being a good manager does not make one a good leader. It has been said that managers deal in efficiency and leaders in effectiveness. A manager is happy that the work place is going smoothly. A leader wants things to change for the better. Henry the V was not born a leader. He developed his leadership over time. He learned leadership was about the we and us not the l. In his speech at Saint Crispin he constantly referred to we, us, our. Never Just himself. This is a sign oaf true leader. Leaders must be enablers to those followers around them. An example of this is when Henry V allowed York to lead the battle. He had faith in his ability to perform his feat. This is also an example that leadership can be displayed at all levels not just the top. In any organization leadership can be shared by many. Scheme (1992) wrote,the most salient aspect of future leadership will be that the desirable characteristics will not be present in a few people all the time, but rather will be present in many people some of the time. Souses and Posses wrote about a statement of Larry Boswell, CEO of Honeywell. Boswell answered to the question how one doing as a leader with is, How am I doing as a leader? The answer is how are the people you lead doing? (p. 1) A great leader will have the desire to make a difference. They will use their power to make that difference. Everyone has a natural attraction to power. One must remember that absolute power corrupts absolutely. Power can play into the human weakness. A great leader will not abuse their power. Although Henry V was a great leader his ego used his power to put his men a great risk continuing the war when they had so fewer men than the French. The fact that his men had such faith in his leadership they fought with such confidence they were able to win the battle. Any company can have this same type of environment. A leader can make their followers feel the desire to make certain choices that are not favorable to the mission and vision of their company. Even though the choices are not in line with the organizations mission positive outcomes can still be accomplished. In this case management would look favorably on the choices instead AT negatively. 10 De cutlets an organization needs to De In constant learning. Leader needs to have hope, optimism, and a sense of power. One can use rhetoric as Henry V did in his SST. Crispin speech to persuade those around them to follow the companys goals, mission and vision.

Mans Journey Into Self In Heart Of Darkness And Apocalypse Now Essays

Mans Journey Into Self In Heart Of Darkness And Apocalypse Now Essays Man's Journey into Self in Heart of Darkness and Apocalypse Now Inherent inside every human soul is a savage evil side that remains repressed by society. Often this evil side breaks out during times of isolation from our culture, and whenever one culture confronts another. History is loaded with examples of atrocities that have occurred when one culture comes into contact with another. Whenever fundamentally different cultures meet, there is often a fear of contamination and loss of self that leads us to discover more about our true selves, often causing perceived madness by those who have yet to discover. The Puritans left Europe in hopes of finding a new world to welcome them and their beliefs. What they found was a vast new world, loaded with Indian cultures new to them. This overwhelming cultural interaction caused some Puritans to go mad and try to purge themselves of a perceived evil. This came to be known as the Salem witch trials. During World War II, Germany made an attempt to overrun Europe. What happened when the Nazis came into power and persecuted the Jews in Germany, Austria and Poland is well known as the Holocaust. Here, human?s evil side provides one of the scariest occurrences of this century. Adolf Hitler and his Nazi counterparts conducted raids of the ghettos to locate and often exterminate any Jews they found. Although Jews are the most widely known victims of the Holocaust, they were not the only targets. When the war ended, 6 million Jews, Slavs, Gypsies, homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses, Communists, and others targeted by the Nazis, had died in the Holocaust. Most of these deaths occurred in gas chambers and mass shootings. This gruesome attack was motivated mainly by the fear of cultural intermixing which would impurify the "Master Race." Joseph Conrad?s book, The Heart of Darkness and Francis Coppola?s movie, Apocalypse Now are both stories about Man?s journey into his self, and the discoveries to be made there. They are also about Man confronting his fears of failure, insanity, death, and cultural contamination. During Marlow?s mission to find Kurtz, he is also trying to find himself. He, like Kurtz had good intentions upon entering the Congo. Conrad tries to show us that Marlow is what Kurtz had been, and Kurtz is what Marlow could become. Every human has a little of Marlow and Kurtz in them. Marlow says about himself, "I was getting savage (Conrad)," meaning that he was becoming more like Kurtz. Along the trip into the wilderness, they discover their true selves through contact with savage natives. As Marlow ventures further up the Congo, he feels like he is traveling back through time. He sees the unsettled wilderness and can feel the darkness of it?s solitude. Marlow comes across simpler cannibalistic cultures along the banks. The deeper into the jungle he goes, the more regressive the inhabitants seem. Kurtz had lived in the Congo, and was separated from his own culture for quite some time. He had once been considered an honorable man, but the jungle changed him greatly. Here, secluded from the rest of his own society, he discovered his evil side and became corrupted by his power and solitude. Marlow tells us about the Ivory that Kurtz kept as his own, and that he had no restraint, and was " a tree swayed by the wind (Conrad, 209)." Marlow mentions the human heads displayed on posts that "showed that Mr. Kurtz lacked restraint in the gratification of his various lusts (Conrad, 220)." Conrad also tells us "his... nerves went wrong, and caused him to preside at certain midnight dances ending with unspeakable rights, which... were offered up to him (Conrad, 208)," meaning that Kurtz went insane and allowed himself to be worshipped as a god. It appears that while Kurtz had been isolated from his culture, he had become corrupted by this violent native culture, and allowed his evil side to control him. Marlow realizes that only very near the time of death, does a person grasp the big picture. He describes Kurtz?s last moments "as though a veil had been rent (Conrad, 239)." Kurtz?s last "supreme moment of complete knowledge (Conrad, 239)," showed him how horrible the human soul really can be. Marlow can

Christian College Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Christian College - Personal Statement Example In my opinion, Christian colleges offer not only pure value based education but also they teach the students to live a holistic life. In fact, this is the reason that most of the top executives of a nation have got educated from Christian schools and colleges. They combine education with leadership in a more meaningful manner. It is not only that Christian colleges are rated among the top for the educational achievements, but also that they have the best campus. For instance, if we take into consideration the environmental aspect, it can be noted that these are the campuses where more greenery will be seen. As a result of this the learning environment is very congenial. While many college students come to campus believing that protecting the environment has little to do with their beliefs, many are having their eyes opened to a greener world when they get into a Christian college. According to Peter Illyn, the founder of Restoring Eden, a parachurch ministry in La Center, Washington that's because "Christian campuses are considered theologically safe places where new ideas can be examined and tested,". When it comes to the faculty, it is noteworthy to mention that Christian institutions present the most qualified teaching faculty. In fact, when these colleges appoint the faculty, they look into the experience as well as the value based leadership the teacher can provide to the students.

Business Structure Advice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Business Structure Advice - Essay Example This is where you choose to take on partners. Partners contribute capital to start the business. The business may be a limited partnership that is different from a partnership because some partners (limited partners) have limited liability for the company’s debts while others have unlimited liability (general partners). Advantages of a Partnership will be: My recommendation to you as a new business owner is to start a business as a sole proprietorship and refrain from taking on partners. The sole proprietorship business structure will give you the opportunity start at a lower cost and offer you the flexibility of controlling the business. Once the business is stable, you can safely move to other business structures based on the company’s requirements. Sole-proprietorship-advantages-and-disadvantages. (2014, September 9). Retrieved from Tasmanian Government: https://www.business.tas.gov.au/starting-a-business/starting-a-business-from-scratch/choosing-a-business-structure-intro/sole-proprietorship-advantages-and-disadvantages., Department of State Growth